Jellyfish: more than a floating plastic bag.

I have not completely abandoned my blog although it certainly looks like it. I have so much respect for people that maintain blogs whilst travelling as you get so caught up doing things that things like this take a such a low priority. Excuses aside, I will try to be more consistent.

The Portuguese Man o' War from Stradbroke Island

Portuguese Man o’ War

The idea for this blog came from a beach on Stradbroke Island. I was walking along and came across a small blue jellyfish that had washed ashore. I recognised it as a Portuguese Man o’ War, commonly known in Australia as a ‘bluebottle’. It immediately reminded me of a lecture from 2^nd year that taught me that this particular species of jellyfish is not a single organism. It is in fact not a common jellyfish but a siphonophore, a colony of highly specialised, minute individuals called zooids, which make up a fully functioning animal. These zooids are physiologically assimilated and work in unison to function as a single organism. Zooids are so reliant on each other to function that they are completely incapable of independent survival. The Portuguese Man o’ War is composed of 4 separate entities: the sail (pneumatophore), defense (dactylozooid), reproduction (gonozooid) and feeding (gastrozooid).  The jellyfish generates carbon monoxide from a gas bladder to help inflate the sail along with other gases (Nitrogen, Oxygen and Argon) which diffuse into the gas bladder, allowing floatation. The sail itself is capable of deflation in the event of a surface attack allowing temporary submersion to avoid a potential predator. The long tentacles that protruding from the base of the sail are normally 10 meters long but can be as long as 50 meters. These tentacles each contain stinging cells known as nematocysts (I will go into more detail about them later). These venom-filled stingers fish below the jellyfish and kill small sea animals. Contractile cells within the tentacles then manoeuvre the prey to the gastrozooids for digestion via enzyme secretion. Although a sting is not fatal to humans, they do cause severe pain and skin irritation (as David found out at Manly beach a couple of weeks ago).

A much larger specimen. indicated are the various Zooids that make up the Portuguese Man O' War.

The life of a jellyfish

A heading like this is unlikely to suggest major excitement however jellyfish are actually sexually reproducing carnivores....that just unfortunately look like a floating plastic bag. Their reproductive cycle is pretty cool though. Firstly, the male and female expels sperm and eggs into the water column whereby they unite and form a larvae (known as a planulae). Each planulae will drift until they settle on something solid on the ocean floor. The planulae anchor themselves into position and continue their development into fixed polyps. Polyps themselves can reproduce asexually (refresher on asexual reproduction http://stannagescience.blogspot.com.au/2015/06/lesbian-lizards-of-south-america.html) and produce many clones of themselves. This developmental stage can last for months or even years. It has been suggested that transition into the medusal stage only occurs when the organism detects that conditions are suitable for survival of the adult. At which point, the polyp elongates, allowing the mature medusa to bud off and begin its life as a free-swimming organism.

Visual demonstration of the life cycle of jellyfish

The lifespan of jellyfish is unsurprisingly short. They tend to live somewhere in the region of a several hours to a couple of months. Some larger coastal jellyfish can survive up to 6 months but again, being so low on the food chain doesn’t make for an easy existence. Interestingly, there is an unusual species of jellyfish, Turritopsis gohrnii, which has been observed to have the capability of reverting back into its polyp stage, essentially restarting its own life cycle making it effectively immortal. Imagine growing old only to be able to revert back to being a newborn baby to begin life all over again.

Obviously, jellyfish do not possess the complex central nervous system found in higher vertebrates such as ourselves, however, neural cells within each organism are not just randomly scattered around. Recent research into the jellyfish neural architecture has discovered that there is evidence of neural condensation, locations where the neurons coalesce to form definitive structures. These act as information centres, taking in sensory information and translating it into an appropriate stimuli. They do more than just ‘float about’!

The Sting

                Jellyfish are in fact very dangerous creatures. They sting their prey using nematocysts which are located within specialised cells called cnidocytes, a characteristic of all Cnidaria. When contact is made with a jellyfish tentacle, millions of nematocysts are triggered and when they penetrate the skin, high pressure causes them to burst and inject venom into the victim. Not all jellyfish venom causes adverse effects on humans however there are many that can lead to fatal encounters. Most notably by Cubozoa, the box jellyfish which is well known for causing cardiac arrest and lifelong scars to its victims. Aesthetically distinct because of their square, box-like bell, these animals have been named as the most venomous on earth by some scientists. Researchers have discovered that box jellyfish venom contains porins that rapidly penetrate red blood cells, allowing potassium to leak out. When the plasma potassium levels get too high, there is no more electromotive force and therefore the heart cannot beat. As if that wasn’t enough to keep you well away from the water, a detached tentacle can still sting you days after it has left the jellyfish, not to mention the fact that box jellyfish tentacles have been measured up to 6 meters long!

Conclusion

                They may not be the most exciting animals in the world, but they are fascinating. They can be beautiful to observe and significantly more intricate to study than what you would expect. They have been roaming the seas for over 500 million years and don’t show signs of disappearing any time soon.

They're not half bad to look at either.

Thanks again for reading. Heres hoping it won’t take another 6 months to produce another article!

Lesbian Lizards of South America

Lesbian Lizards of South America

Some people may be disappointed that this is not some kind of sci-fi porn script but it is a pretty interesting occurrence (and it is completely true). This article will focus on sexual reproduction and the benefits and shortcomings of both asexual and sexual species. There is, unfortunately, a lot of background necessary before I get to the lesbian lizards so if that’s not your thing, skip down the second section “Species surviving without sex”. Although typically species exhibit two distinct sexes, certain organisms reproduce asexually. Offspring is produced from a single parent and therefore inherits genes from a sole donor. Such species are sometimes present as a single sex and have adapted to survive in this way. Both vertebrates and invertebrates have been observed to express forms of asexual reproduction naturally, however it is often unclear why certain organisms switch from sexual reproduction to asexuality.

Some sensual girl on girl lizard sex.

Sexual Reproduction

To put it very simply, sexual reproduction is the fusion of 2 gametes via fertilisation to form a zygote which will inevitably develop into the complete organism. There are many benefits to utilising the genetic makeup of 2 parents. First and foremost, it allows for genetic mixing and the purging of deleterious or harmful mutations within a population. Sexual reproduction will also increase the rate of adaptation to an ever changing environment as favourable traits are more likely to be passed on to offspring. However, relying on a mate is costly. The “2 fold-cost of sex” is a theory first outlined by John Maynard Smith and accurately states that when undergoing sexual reproduction, only half of your genetic material is being passed on and the overall genome of the offspring is being shared with another member of the population. There is also the risk of potentially breaking up favourable genetic combinations. Some “good genes” might not get passed on, potentially lowering the general fitness of offspring. Finally, finding a mate is in itself costly. Often, seeking a suitable partners requires significant investment of time and energy whilst also increasing the risk of predation and parasite transmission. Several species have such bizarre mating rituals that the male or female are harmed in the process, inhibiting future reproductive ability. So why bother? If the 2-fold cost of sex tells us anything, sexual reproduction is half as effective as asexual reproduction of passing on genes.

A very costly mating strategy. The male preying mantis sacrifices its own life for fecundity. In order to mate with the female, he allows her to literally eat him.

A diagram highlighting the 2-fold cost of sex. Reliance on a mate only allows half of the individuals genetic material to be passed to offspring. Asexual populations do not incur this cost and all genes passed on are the single parents. 

Species Surviving Without Sex - Lesbian Lizards, Bdelloid rotifers and many, many more.

It would appear that most animals utilise 2 parents and sex to produce offspring. We do it, as do dogs, cats, horses, lions, tigers, rabbits etc. etc. However, more animals than you think have scrapped the ‘popular’ system. In my opinion, the best example of this is the Whiptail Lizard (Cnemidophorus). They originated from hybridisations of sexually reproducing species and have since adapted to life without males. Females can produce full clones of themselves through a modified form of meiosis. The female’s germ cells undergo premeiotic doubling so that 2 consecutive division cycles in the meiosis process result in a diploid, instead of a haploid genome. The females in this population have actually been observed to mimic sex acts, as if mating was occurring between a male and female, but with no actual sex taking place, just to get the hormones pumping. I have included a link below to show exactly what I mean because I can’t mention lizard girl on girl action without some kind of video.

http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p006v48r

Obligate parthenogenesis is the process whereby organisms reproduce exclusively asexually, like the whiptail lizard, who have no other option but to do so. The most documented, historic example is bdelloid rotifers. These microscopic organisms have been present for millions of years and yet, not one male has ever been documented. On the other, more adaptive side of asexual reproduction, is the facultative parthenogens. These animals are generally sexually reproducing, but can switch to asexual reproduction when extreme conditions make it necessary. The Komodo dragon, hammerhead shark and blacktip shark are prominent vertebrate examples of this phenomenon. Other creatures capable of parthenogenic reproduction are several snail species, many flatworms, water fleas, some crayfish, honey bees, parasitic wasps as well as at least 20 fish, 25 lizard, 1 snake, frog and salamander species.

Looking for a mate? Doesn't matter, she can reproduce without one!

Disadvantages of Single Sex Reproduction

Although reproducing asexually removes the expenditure associated with finding a mate, copulating and all the other risks involved, sexual reproduction is a much more beneficial mechanism of reproduction. If an organism lives in a changeable environment, it is easy for an individual to fall prey to its own ecosystem. For example, if new predators are introduced, it would be difficult to adapt a form of defence or camouflage; or say the climate changes it may be difficult for the individual to moderate its body temperature effectively. Also with asexual organisms, harmful mutations become “trapped” within a population as there is no genetic mixing/heterozygosity to remove them. Of course this is an issue that can occur in sexually reproducing organisms but it is less likely that these harmful traits will be passed on to subsequent generations (Unless inbreeding is involved – see http://www.stannagescience.blogspot.com.au/2015/01/inbreeding.html for more information). Accumulation of deleterious mutations is known as "Muller's Ratchet".

Conclusion

In many instances, eliminating one gender has proved successful but it is not without its added risks. To conclude, there is not one correct way of survival in regards to reproduction, it is a matter of adaptation to extreme circumstances as well as avoiding the accumulation of harmful mutations within a population. Success stories from either side provide evidence they can co-exist and bdelloid rotifers have shown you can survive exclusively without mating for millions of years! Although they don’t lead a particularly exciting life.

I have done my best to reel this post in as it was quickly becoming a full blown essay. If I haven’t been clear on any areas I can expand on some points and provide more colourful examples!

Cheers!

Simple Science Shorts #2

Science shorts 2

I made several promises that I would continue to write this blog after I left to go travelling. I had every intention of chilling in some internet café in Asia, having coffee and typing away but of course, at no stage did that actually happen. I have been lazy, and I intend on changing that now. Without diving straight into a full post on a specific topic I will try to piece together an easy to write, easy to read set of explanations for day to day occurrences or subjects that I have thought about over the past week. Ease myself back into it!

I like this picture. Its even relevant to the first section of this blog. DO NOT GIVE CHOCOLATE TO PUPPIES.

Why is chocolate toxic to dogs?

It is fairly wide known to anyone that owns a dog, not to give it chocolate. I was curious as to the specific reason for this however as it would be interesting if the particular substance that causes this toxicity is present in other things that could come into contact with dogs. It turns out that the poisonous substance contained within chocolate is theobromine, a xanthine alkaloid. Not only is this substance lethal to dogs, it is also poisonous to us, albeit in significantly larger doses. The lethal dose (LD₅₀) of theobromine in dogs is ~300mg/Kg body mass whereas in humans, LD₅₀ = ~1000mg/Kg. Take into account the significantly larger body weight of people and it is obvious how little chocolate is needed to poison a dog (and obviously it would take much less chocolate to kill a Chihuahua than a Great Dane). Theobromine increases metabolic rate, cardiovascular activity and neural activity which can result in cardiac arrest, hyperventilation and seizures in canines. This becomes fatal when the chemical pushes the body to function far beyond its capabilities resulting in permanent damage. Theobromine is found in chocolate because it is produced by the cocoa plant. This means that it can also be traced in coffee (and other caffienated beverages), cocoa powder as well as in tea leaves so again, avoid letting your dog come into contact with anything associated with cocoa plants!

One thing that is also very peculiar is that cats actually have a lower theobromine LD₅₀ than dogs. However, they do not possess the necessary receptors on their tongues to taste sweetness, and are therefore at a lower risk of ever experiencing theobromine poisoning.

The moral of this section is don't risk giving chocolate to a dog, even a small amount can be deadly. Think of the puppies.

Goosebumps

Hot dogs or legs?

Everyone at some stage has experienced Goosebumps. These small bumps on your skin and erect hairs arise from exposure to cold temperatures or even experiencing strong emotions such as fear, arousal or euphoria. Goosebumps, termed medically as “horripilation”, is innervated from the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system and facilitated via contraction of arrector pili muscles attached to the hair follicles. This involuntary contraction responds to a variety of stresses for a number of reasons. The primary function is considered to be for insulation. Air becomes trapped between the erect hairs which enables the individual to retain heat. However, this trait has underwent expatation and is therefore not exclusively developed for heat retention. The sympathetic nervous system is synonymous with the ‘fight or flight’ response. There are strong hypotheses to suggest that under stressful situations, the contraction of the arrector pili muscles is being utilised to make the individual appear bigger and therefore more intimidating to a potential predator (such is the case in the porcupine raising its spines). It seems however that this trait has become a vestigial response to humans. This means that it has lost its original function. Humans no longer have much body hair to provide much added warmth, nor enough to increase body size a noticeable amount.

Interestingly, the colloquial name “Goosebumps” derives from the appearance of the bumps under a microscope. Evidently, they look very similar to the head and bill of a goose.

A simple representation of the effect of the arrector pili muscles causing a lump in the skin and erection of hair.

When Tanning Stops and Sunburn Begins

Showcasing melanogenesis in response to UVB radiation.

Everyone I know is different. Some people cannot get a tan if they pay for it; other turn golden brown looking out the window; and some people burn watching Thomas cook adverts. Why does the sun affect our skin so differently and what sort of damage is it actually doing to us? As with everything good in life, it is harming us in some way. Melanin pigmentation of the skin protects the body by absorbing solar radiation to a certain extent. The direct cause of tanning is exposure to UV rays from the sun (UVA, UVB or a combination of both) which results signalling to increase protection. The first mechanisms involved, is UVA radiation causing oxidative stress to melanin already present in your skin, resulting in oxidisation and rapid darkening of the skin tone. The second phase is triggered by UVB radiation which initiates melanogenisis (production of melanin). This is the body’s reaction to direct and indirect DNA damage within the skin and the increase of melanin present causes the skin colour to darken. Although the redness of sunburn appears to be the damaged consequence of exposure to UVB radiation, it is actually your body’s photoprotection response. By preventing UV protons from disrupting chemical bonds, melanin inhibits both direct and indirect alternation of DNA and the production of harmful free radicals. The damage of sunburn is mainly the formation of a thymine dimer which triggers several defence mechanisms like melanogenisis as well as apoptosis to kill and remove irreparably damaged cells and an inflammation process. Inflammation produces prostanoids and bradykinin which increase sensitivity to heat (making showering with sunburn particularly unpleasant) and also results in the overproduction of CXCL5 protein, activating nerve fibres, causing pain.

At some stage I intend on covering skin cancer associated with severe sunburn but that will require a post in itself.

There was going to be another section in this blog about allergies however it became very clear early on that this topic is much too large for a "shorts" post. I will make a full post on allergies sometime soon!

As always, feedback and ideas for other topics are very welcome.

Cheers!

Inbreeding

I have recently got into watching Game of Thrones so I thought there is no topic more appropriate than the wonders of inbreeding. Many people have heard the rumours that having offspring with blood relatives results in children with physical and mental defects, however there has never really been an explanation as to why that is the case. This article will outline the genetic reasoning behind these abnormalities (despite my hatred of studying genetics).

What is inbreeding?

Inbreeding is defined as the mating or breeding of individuals with a close genetic relationship (brother and sister, father and daughter etc). The problem lies with recessive genes. Whilst we all carry either beneficial or neutral genes, we also possess a selection of deleterious, recessive genes that have the potential to negatively impact our health. These recessive genes generally remain inactive as they are the recessive form of the gene and are never expressed in the presence of the harmless, dominant gene. If the recessive gene is not expressed, an individual will be a carrier of a potentially harmful genetic condition rather than a sufferer. Family members have a higher probability of carrying the same recessive, gene leading to its expression. The homozygosity of intrafamily-produced offspring means that they are at increased risk of being affected by recessive or deleterious traits which in turn leads to a decreased biological fitness.

Here is an example of a recessive gene being passed from parents to offspring. The second generation are only carrying the gene without experiencing any decrease in biological fitness. When the brother and sister snake then have a baby, the 3rd generation was passed matching recessive alleles which expresses the maladaptive gene. That red snake probably has an extra head, spinal bifida, cystic fibrosis or perhaps it is just red despite being from a black family.

The probability and severity of developing such disorders is increased the closer the genetic relationship between the biological parents (i.e. a brother and sister’s offspring has a much higher likelihood of congenital birth defects than a girl and her mother’s brother). This is because the closer the biological relationship, there is an increase of pairings of deleterious alleles which produce disorders. As the predominance of these deleterious, recessive alleles are rare in populations, it is highly unlikely that two unrelated parents will carry the same allele but close relatives share a large number of alleles, which increases the chance of one becoming dominant and therefore detrimental.

Is it exclusive to humans?

In the animal kingdom, inbreeding is more commonplace. Firstly there isn’t as much stigma to mating with a cousin when you are an elephant seal but also because often when a population becomes isolated, they do not have an option to breed with non-family. Animals also experience the negative impact of maladaptive homozygosity such is the example of the Isle Royale Wolves. As the population of wolves is isolated on an island, malformations are “stuck” in the population. In the recently published, annual report of the wolves, it was noted that the predation rate on the island has decreased significantly. It has been suggested that this is a result of ongoing inbreeding of the pack (Isle Royale is currently the longest running study of predator/prey interaction due to the observation of wolves and moose that crossed onto the island via an ice bridge. The study is currently in its 57^th year). Abnormalities such as too many bones in the vertebral column and vulnerable immune systems have been noted and are showing signs of spreading and unfortunately, there is no opportunity for genetic relief as “foreign” wolves cannot be naturally introduced to the island.

This is a comparison of a normal wolf vertebrae compared to one taken from an Isle Royale wolf. Note the slight size difference as well as the obvious deformity.

Benefits of Inbreeding

Of course, eliminating genetic diversity can be beneficial. Inbreeding produces uniform and predictable offspring. This is commonly seen in the pure-breeding of animals to ensure desirable traits are maintained and when an undesirable trait appears, selective mating is used to eliminate that particular mutation. Also, the primary issue with inbreeding is the doubling up of deleterious recessive alleles. On the contrary, inbreeding also doubles up advantageous “good genes”, keeping them within a population. 

Blood alcohol, what is your limit?

As you should all know, the legal limit for drinking alcohol and driving was lowered in Scotland on December 5^th.  From now on, a blood alcohol concentration of 50mg/100mls blood is considered over the legal limit (down from 80mg/100mls). Personally it made me realise that I did not fully understand the initial drink drive limit. Before it was commonly accepted to have a single pint or glass of wine and still be perfectly acceptable to drive however this 30mg reduction seems to have made all the difference. This article I will look at how your body processes alcohol and at what stage it becomes legal and safe to operate a vehicle.

An example of when it is not ok to drive soon.

Alcohol in your blood

The more I have looked into this topic the more complicated I have found it. Primarily due to the fact that there are many determining factors from the strength and volume of drink, to the size and weight of the drinker. Not to mention this persons particular tolerance to alcohol. Also a lot of research was conducted in America where they measure both blood alcohol content in different units but also have different serving volumes of alcohol. To put it simply, blood alcohol content is the blood ethanol concentration. In the case of Britain, it is expressed in mg/ml.

Without properly calibrated equipment, it is very difficult to provide an accurate reading of blood alcohol content. There are several “calculators” available online that give you an estimation so I tested to see what effect a small amount of alcohol can have on your body. The test provided the following result: As a 75kg male, if I consumed 2 pints and was tested one hour afterwards, my blood alcohol content would be 57mg/100ml, over the legal limit. Not only that, it would take in excess of 4 hours for that alcohol to completely leave my system. Obviously these online calculators must be taken with a pinch of salt but it shows how little alcohol it takes to be over the limit and also how long it remains in your system for.

Alcohol absorption, distribution and elimination. It takes longer than you might think.

Another major cause for concern is people driving after a drinking the night before. Many of us assume that after a few hours’ sleep, all the alcohol in our system will be gone. This however is not the case. Alcohol is absorbed through the GI tract: rapidly in the small and large intestine (due to its large surface area) but also slowly within the stomach itself. Post-absorption, alcohol is passed via the hepatic portal vein to the liver before entering the bloodstream. Alcohol has a high affinity for water and is therefore transported in the blood throughout the body. Once absorption is complete, an equilibrium occurs such that the blood at all points within the body contains approximately the same concentration of alcohol.

From the bloodstream, alcohol must be removed by a combination of metabolism, excretion and evaporation. The predominance of alcohol removal is via liver metabolism. Alcohol dehydrogenase converts ethanol into acetaldehyde (If you remember a previous blog on hangovers you will be familiar with this and if you haven’t read it, read it now! http://www.stannagescience.blogspot.co.uk/2014/08/the-hangover.html). A healthy individual will metabolise alcohol at a fairly consistent rate. Several factors however will influence the rate in which alcohol is metabolised. Rate of elimination tends to be higher when blood alcohol concentration is very high (potentially as the body considers the levels of toxins as a serious threat and invests more metabolic energy to remove it). Also, chronic alcoholics may actually be able to metabolise alcohol significantly quicker due to increased tolerance. The body’s ability to metabolise alcohol quickly diminishes with age, meaning older people take longer to process the same amount of alcohol as a younger person.

In terms of how long alcohol stays in your bloodstream, it is very difficult to predict. As stated before, there are many contributing factors to the speed of alcohol metabolism and as a result, will vary from person to person how quickly it is eliminated. If you consider a normal, healthy liver. It will metabolise alcohol at a constant rate – approximately 1 gram per hour for every 10kg of bodyweight. This is around 1 unit per hour post-consumption.

It is important to note that there is nothing that you can do to speed up the metabolism and therefore the elimination of alcohol in your system. Having a cup of coffee or a cold shower may make you feel more sober and alert but it has in no way reduced your blood alcohol concentration. When it comes to driving, it really is not worth the risk.

Even drinking plenty of water does not reduce the blood alcohol concentration, even if it does make you feel better.

I found a plethora of fairly average blood alcohol concentration calculators but I found this is one considers more factors and provides more information so I would recommend having a play on this: http://www.alcoholhelpcenter.net/program/BAC_Standalone.aspx

(units are in g/100ml so multiply by 100 to get the UK standard measurement of mg/100ml)

HIV - The virus, its effect, treatment and the future.

The Human Immunodeficiancy Virus (HIV) has been documented as the worst pandemic in human history. Yet despite approximately 70 million contracted cases, accounting for more than 35 million deaths, a definitive cure has evaded researchers to this date for a number of reasons. For one, rapid antigenic drift means that the intricate acquired immune system of humans cannot keep up with the constantly changing antigenic make-up of the HIV's surface (surface coat of the virus frequently changes). The HIV retrovirus also has a target immunocyte, the CD4+ helper t cell. By attacking the cells that signal, synthesise and mediate the function of the CD8+ cytotoxic t cells amongst other immune effectors, they further reduce the chances of the immune system defending against the infection. HIV is a retrovirus that causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), a condition in which failure of the immune system enables opportunistic infections and cancers to thrive. HIV is a blood-borne virus that can be transmitted via the transfer of blood, semen, vaginal fluid or breast milk.

An HIV viral molecule.

Acquired Immune Response

            One of the main systems which sets out higher vertebrates from their invertebrate counterparts, is a sophisticated, well-developed immune system. The acquired, or adaptive, immune system, enables humans to recognise non-self pathogens as well as creating an immunological “memory” whereby repeated infections by the same strain of a disease will be recognised and defended against more efficiently. The cells responsible for this task are the T and B lymphocytes. The CD4+ Helper T cell are vital to proper immune function. These cells aid B cells in producing antibodies, recruits neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils to infection site, inflammation and through cytokine and chemokine signalling, orchestrate the many components of immune response. Another prominent immune effector in mammals are the CD8+ Cytotoxic T cells. These immunocytes recognises and binds to specific viral antigens on infected cell surfaces and releases chemicals to destroy the cell before the virus can enter the nucleus and begin replication. The HIV virus is so devastating to the human body as it selectively invades the CD4+ Helper t cells; the HIV envelope glycoprotein gp120 binds to to the surface of the CD4+ helper t cell followed by internalisation. This renders them incapacitated and prevents them from mediating the intricate immune response. Furthermore, the HIV virus targets macrophages which are major effectors in phagocytosing, engulfing and digesting pathogens and cellular debris. HIV infects these cell types in different ways however as CD4+ cells are generally eliminated by host pathogenic effects whereas macrophages physically survive, acting as an infection containing reservoir.

Why HIV is able to successfully hide from the immune system

Antigenic variation is a prominent factor in a diseases resistance to a host immune system. HIV is a retrovirus meaning that the enveloped virus replicates within the host cell via reverse transcription. Once the single stranded RNA enters the host cell cytoplasm, the virus uses its own reverse transcriptase enzyme to produce DNA. Now, normal transcription is subject to massive amounts of proof reading to prevent any sort of mistakes and therefore mutations. HIV reverse transcription harbours no mechanisms of proof reading and therefore every viral replication produces mutated versions. As it replicates so quickly, millions of varying strands of the virus are produced within a single host so that even when the acquired immune system recognises a particular strain, many more are already going undetected. This mechanism of producing many mutated strains is an effective method of immune avoidance but it is not under the control of the virus itself. Often, less effective or benign strains of the virus are produced but due to the sheer magnitude of viral replication, enough harmful strains are produced to be effective.

An HIV virus binding to the CCR5 receptor of a CD4+ helper T cell and entering the cytoplasm.

Treatment of HIV

Historically, the stigma of HIV has been that it is a death sentence, however advances in medicine have dramatically increased not only the standard of living of patients, but also their longevity. Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy (HAART) maintains immune system function as well as preventing opportunistic infections normally associated with a depleted immune system. Treatments have also meant that HIV progression into AIDS is becoming increasingly rare. A paper published in 2012 has suggested that as many as 700,000 lives were saved in 2010 as a direct result of antiretroviral therapy. Prior to treatment, the average life expectancy of someone infected with HIV was 9-12 years post-infection. Now, patients can live to their normal life expectancy despite carrying the disease, however as a cure is still not available, they can still transmit the infection.

Future of Cure and Vaccine Research

As it stands, there is no way of curing or preventing HIV. Obviously, there is ongoing research into more efficient and effective retroviral treatment but the main priority should be into a cure the virus, or even better a vaccine to prevent it in the first place. Efforts have been placed on targeting the gp120 on the surface of the virus that binds to the CCR5 receptor on the CD4+helper T cell. There are documented cases of individuals who possess a 32 base pair deletion on their CCR5 receptor that are technically immune to HIV. Studies on these particular mutations could pave the way to a definitive vaccine.

Thankfully, we live in an age where treatments are available but many of the sufferers of HIV do not have access to such therapy. The disease is most prevalent in Africa where a combination of lack of education about the disease and lack of funds to afford treatment make it particularly devastating. Awareness saves lives and there should be no stigma to being tested. Preventing the spread of the disease can be as important as developing a cure. I find this disease as fascinating as it is devastating so if you would like to know more about it, I would be happy to answer any questions.

Prevalence of HIV, the predominance of cases are in Africa due to lack of education and access to treatment 

Simple science shorts #1

Again I would like to explore a different route. As I haven’t posted in a while I thought I would lump together some ideas I have had over the past few weeks that I feel may not be worth an entire blog on their own. If you would like some more short questions answered send me a message and I could include them if I do something along these lines again! Enjoy!

Why does your stomach rumble when you are hungry?

                A very common occurrence during the interdigestive phase. It has been several hours since your last meal and suddenly everyone around you becomes very aware that you are hungry. The rumble of your stomach associated hunger is a series of convulsions known as the migrating motility complex (MMC). The MMC triggers peristaltic waves (muscular waves, the same as in your throat for swallowing) in an attempt to transport indigestible materials such as bone past the ileocecal sphincter and into the colon. So in essence, your stomach starts attempting to suck in other parts of your body to eat.

What makes your eye twitch?

                Unwelcomed spasms of the eyelid come and go without much thought despite them being mildly annoying. Known as “myokymia” to doctors, an eye twitch is simply rippling muscle contrations caused by a variety of simple triggers such as: tiredness, stress, caffeine, allergies, dry eyes, alcohol consumption or caused by an irritant. Generally (almost always), eye twitching is a benign condition (meaning harmless) however in some cases it can be an indication of neurological conditions. Blepharospasm is a CNS disorder sometimes associated with an eye twitch however the cause is not yet known.

Heard of a Demodex?

                Based on their abundance you definitely should have but if you are squeamish I recommend skipping this section and move on…..

Demodex are arachnids called eyebrow mites and they are considered one of the most commonly occurring human parasites. Up to 90% of people have them and they are very contagious but at only 0.3mm long, you won’t be seeing any without a microscope. The 2 species that might be found within your hair follicles or sebaceous glands are Demodex folliculorum and D. brevis but do not worry, they will not harm you in any way. They simply feed off of skin cells and oils which can actually be beneficial by preventing waste build up on the skin surface.

Demodex folliculorum

What causes “butterflies” when you’re nervous?

                Some of you may now be experiencing this due to your new found knowledge about Demodex. Interestingly, your digestive system is actually closely linked to your thoughts and emotions. When you are faced with a nerve-wracking situation the body undergoes its “fight-or-flight” response which includes increase of heart rate, blood pressure and breathing rate. Stimulation of adrenal glands also releases adrenaline and cortisol whilst muscle contraction makes the body more alert. The rush of adrenaline temporarily halts digestion enabling energy and oxygenated blood to be utilised in the necessary working muscles. Sensitive muscles surrounding the stomach also contract. The combination of muscle contraction and ceased digestion gives you that fluttery feeling when you are racked with nerves or fear.

Which came first the chicken or the egg?

                The egg….Dinosaurs laid eggs…

How accurate is counting a trees rings to determine its age?

               

                Dendrochronology is the analysis of growth rings and throughout school we have always been told you can determine how old a tree is by simply counting the rings when you cut its trunk in half. Well this is actually completely true, but the age of the tree is not all you can find out from a cross section of the trunk. Growth rings are the result of recent growth in the vascular cambium which is a layer near the tree bark known as a lateral meristem. There is a visible ring because of variation in growth speed through certain seasons of the year. The inner portion of the growth ring is formed during the early stages of the growing season. Then, under the optimum conditions, rapid growth produces less dense and differently coloured wood followed by the end of season, dense wood giving the distinctive ring formation. The rings can vary dependant on the growing conditions. A wide ring will occur when there is adequate moisture and a long growing season whereas a drought year causes a narrow ring to form. This can however cause confusion as mid-summer droughts can result in “missing rings” or several to form in any given year. To a skilled dendrochronologist however, this is merely an indication of seasonal shifts and the trees age can still be identified accurately.

Note the lighter, less dense rings indicating the rapid growing season. You can also see the variation in size indicating optimal and poor growing conditions.

The octopus: greatest animal ever? Yes...yes it is.

If your favourite animal isn’t the octopus I can tell you right now that you are wrong. These majestic invertebrates are not only top predators but are also intelligent, masters of camouflage and delicious. They are cephalopod molluscs with a beak, 2 developed eyes, 8 distinctive arms, venom, 3 hearts, and several characteristics that belong in sci-fi films.

Firstly, I’d like to settle the plurality debate: OCTOPUSES is the plural of octopus, not octopi. This is because the name derived from ancient Greek (ὀκτώπους meaning 8 legs, obviously). Had octopuses been of latin decent the “i” ending would be correct… but its not.

Camouflage

            You think chameleons are the masters of colour change? Wrong! Cephalopods (octopuses, cuttlefish and squids) have the most advanced mechanisms of rapid adaptive camouflage that cannot be matched by any land animal. Many animals that possess the ability of colour change must move to the correct visual background with appropriate lighting conditions to fully implement camouflage. Octopuses however have such precise vision and sophisticated skin, they can use direct neural control to rapidly change and fine-tune the optical diversity of their colour change. As can be seen in the below image, the Octopus vulgaris can change from completely invisible to its normal state in a fraction over 2 seconds.

A time lapse representation of the Octopus vulgaris using camouflage. The difference between the first and last image is 2.02 seconds.

Not only are octopuses able to adapt their colour they can also manipulate their shape. The ‘mimic octopus’ Macrotritopus defilippi has mastered the art of hiding in plain sight. Often found in open sandy habitats, it mimics the swimming behaviour of a flounder to deter predators. Typically, predators of the octopus are seeking a soft, fleshy meal and will therefore ignore what seems to be a boney flatfish. Octopuses have also been noted to use batesian mimicry whereby they imitate the warning signals of a harmful species despite being harmless themselves. Some species have been observed to imitate the colouration of the deadly lionfish. Octopuses, and other cephalopods, are able to alter their colour because of chromatophore organs. Chromatophore organs are composed of a single chromatophore cell and an elastic sacculus containing pigment. When excited, the sacculus can expand and retract accredited to specific neural control, allowing particular colours/patterns to be revealed.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=orrdcwTuXmQ

DID YOU SEE THAT

There are even better videos on youtube but this was the best I could find on short notice without annoying commentary. Have a look!

Intelligence

            The true extent of the octopuses’ intelligence is under serious debate but regardless, their intellect can be considered a great evolutionary success. Two thirds of an octopuses neurons reside in its arms rather than its head. This means that each individual arm can “consciously” solve problems, like opening shellfish, whilst the others can be busy doing other things like foraging for more shellfish. It seems effortless that an octopus can coordinate and control its 8 arms yet we as human beings struggle to control our own fingers….oh you can? Try this: place your hand palm down on the table/floor/surface. Bend your middle finger inward as shown in the picture. Now, keeping your hand down, raise and lower your pointing finger….raise and lower your pinky….raise and lower your thumb…raise and lower your ring finger. Not gonna happen. Also try miming anticlockwise circles with your right foot whilst drawing the number 6 with your right hand.

Place your hand like so and see how much control you really have over your own digits.

Back to octopuses however…they are unique among invertebrates due to their extremely large nervous system. In laboratory experiments they can readily learn to associate visual or tactile stimuli with a positive or negative reward, they can learn by observation and in maze experiments have shown prominent evidence of both a short-term and long-term memory.

Like chimpanzees they have also been witnessed to use tools. Some species of octopus carry coconut shell halves under their bodies to later assemble into shelters; others use stones to barricade the front of their dens. This shows a level of cognitive ability and sophisticated behaviour that used to be exclusive to vertebrates. Some octopuses have a special set of skills that even human beings cannot come close to matching. For example, I can’t for the life of me win a football bet yet a certain octopus named Paul managed to predict 11 out of 13 matches during the 2010 world cup.

Paul the octopus

Other amazing things about octopuses that I can’t fit in without turning this into a novel

• The suckers on the octopus appendages are both incredibly strong and very delicate. Not only can they individually respond to subtle chemical signals, a single large sucker can hold up to 15kg.
• Their dexterity is phenominal. In some tests, octopuses have been able to unlock and open the top of a childproof pill bottle.
• The blue ringed octopus has enough venom to paralyse an adult (most species however, do not have venom)
• They can fit through the smallest of holes. As its body is fully flexible, an octopus can fit through any sized hole, no matter how small, as long as its beak can fit through. (http://video.nationalgeographic.com/video/octopus_cyanea_locomotion)
• They have 3 hearts – 2 work exclusively to transport blood beyond the animals gills whilst the 3^rd acts similar to a human heart, circulating haemocyanin (equivalent of blood) to the organs. BONUS FACT – the heart actually stops beating as it swims which makes octopuses prone to crawling as swimming can be exhausting.
• Octopuses have highly developed eyes. Some species actually have colour vision and most have statocysts which allow the animal to sense its orientation relative to horizontal.
• The octopus defense mechanism of shooting ink at a potential threat does not only hide the animal, it also harms the predator. The ink contains tyrosinase which causes blinding irritation and disrupts the sense of smell and taste. Despite their advanced intelligence, octopuses that fail to escape their own ink cloud, can accidentally kill themselves.
• THEY CAN HUNT SHARKS. Seriously. Watch. (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rCDBt-4NSCk)
• Olfactory sensors have been identified in the suction cups on the octopuses arms. Meaning they can basically smell with their arms.
• A detached limb from a predation attack can regenerate. I have read that they occasionally eat their own arms in certain circumstances but the sources are far from reputable.

Asbestos: awareness that could save your life.

As far as I am aware, everyone knows that asbestos is pretty bad. At some stage, most people will have at least heard of a building being quarantined due to disturbed asbestos but how detrimental can it really be to our health? What effects does it have on our body and what preventative measures can be taken? To begin I will outline what asbestos is and why it is so common.

            The use of asbestos has been dated back over 4000 years and contrary to popular belief, it is not man made, it is actually mined. Initially it was used to strengthen cooking utensils and woven into clothes but it was not very commonly used. Later, in the industrial era, manufacturers and builders began utilising asbestos for its favourable properties. Asbestos is resistant to heat, fire, chemical and electrical damage as well as being inexpensive and have high tensile strength. Based on these attributes and lack of knowledge regarding potential health defects, asbestos was widely used in insulation, ceiling tiles, in walls, fireplaces, surrounding boilers, floor tiles amongst other places. Although throughout history it was noted that people working in asbestos mines or in asbestos manufacturing experienced negative health effects, the first documented death relating to asbestos was in 1906. Despite subsequent cases of deaths relating to exposure to asbestos, it was still ordinarily used in construction until legislation passed in 1999 outlawed its use. As a result, many homes, schools, factories and offices built before 2000 can contain asbestos. But do not panic. Asbestos is only dangerous if it is disturbed or damaged.

As you can see,  asbestos can be extremely common around the home. Do remember however that it is harmless unless disturbed so always take care before undertaking any destructive DIY work.

Health defects caused by asbestos

            As aforementioned, exposure to asbestos fibres can be dangerous and often fatal. Asbestos is a generic name for a group of minerals that have severe adverse effects on the respiratory system. Inhalation can cause fibrosis of the lung (known as “asbestosis”) as well as 2 types of malignant tumours making it a prominent carcinogen. Mesothelioma is a tumour of the serosal cells which line the pleural and peritoneal cavities (the external lining of the lung and the lining of the abdomen respectively). This form of cancer is rare but is predominantly seen in individuals whose occupation entails the risk of asbestos inhalation.

The second type of cancer caused by asbestos is bronchogenic carcinoma. This begins as a small lesion within the epithelial cells of the bronchial mucosa which grows and develops into the bronchial lumen. Eventually it can spread to the regional lymph nodes and other distant organs.

            But how does asbestos fibres actually cause cancer? Well asbestos kills cells in a gruesome process known as ‘programmed cell necrosis’. Instead of the cell merely dying and being harmlessly disposed of via macrophages, the cells release group box 1 protein (HMGB1). This protein induces a particular type of inflammatory reaction that causes the release of mutagens and tumour growth factors

Identifying asbestos:

            Below are some images of asbestos, as you can see, it can be rather difficult to identify and comes in a variety of colours (white, brown and blue).

 

The 3 main types of asbestos

White asbestos

An example of a ceiling that contains asbestos

If you discover asbestos or even think you have, don’t panic. If it is in good condition it will not pose a concern to your health. Just ensure that it is not damaged or deteriorated. Importantly, if you are aware of asbestos and your house is being renovated, always inform the tradesperson! Never assume they have identified it.

If you wish to remove asbestos for whatever reason DO NOT THROW IT IN THE BIN OR USE A NORMAL HOOVER. Contact your local council who will dispose of it safely.